Positive Health Online

Plants at Risk

With the soaring demand for medicinal and aromatic plants, the latest buzzwords used by traders are 'wildcrafted' and 'sustainable'. Words that summon images of smiling workers gathering leaves, bark and flowers from forest, meadow and mountainside - not indiscriminately, but with knowledge and sensitivity, to ensure survival of plants and habitats for future generations. In fairness, some companies do try to ensure that wild plants are harvested ethically and sustainably. However, there is no legal definition of these terms, and buying botanically based products with these labels is no guarantee they are from sustainable sources.

While the market for standardized over-the-counter herbal remedies has taken its toll, undoubtedly the most voracious plunderers of Earth's finite resources are the multinational drug companies. Renewed interest by the pharmaceutical industry in plant medicines (particularly the desire to manipulate plant genes to gain lucrative patents), combined with the lack of effective international agreements on conservation of habitats, has resulted in 'slaughter harvesting' of medicinal plants, and massive depletion of habitats.

The true scale of the international trade in medicinal plants is difficult to assess because of lack of reliable statistics and trade secrecy. However, the Wild Wildlife Fund and other conservation agencies estimate that up to 90% of all medicinal and aromatic plants traded throughout the world are still collected from the wild. So it's hardly surprising that an alarming number of plants have become threatened in recent years.

The manner of collection of the recently endangered Prunus bark (Prunus africanas) in Cameroon and Zaire is a sad reflection of practices adopted by the international trade in medicinal plants as a whole. Extracts of the bark are used in pharmaceutical preparations in several European countries to treat early stages of benign prostate disease. Businessmen, or their agents, contact local villagers for collection of the bark, which is stripped indiscriminately, causing many trees to die. It's difficult for poor people to resist the chance of an income, no matter how appallingly small, even if they are aware that the long-term effects on the environment may be devastating.

Another cause for concern is the media, which leads the way in educating the general public about botanical remedies, thus ensuring that only a few herbs are popular at any one time. Media hype generates massive demand and increases the risk of over-collection in certain parts of the world. Current herbal celebrities now threatened in their natural habitats include:

Arnica (Arnica montana), from Eastern Europe, Spain and Switzerland;
Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens), from Namibia, Botswana and South Africa;
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), mainly Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, Syria, Pakistan, Russia;
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium), from northern USA, Canada and East Asia;
Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng), from the Manchuria Mountain region of China;
Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), from northern USA;
Echinacea (Echinacea spp.), from northern USA;
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), North America;
Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa, D. spp), from eastern and central USA and some tropical countries.

In some cases plants are abundant in one region and quite rare in another. The following American plant species are potentially at risk due to heavy collection, and are thus monitored by the US conservation agency United Plant Savers. Those plants marked with an asterisk are valued not only as herbal medicines, but also for their essential oils.

Calamus* (Acorus calamus);
Cascara (Rhammas purshiana);
May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum);
Oregon Grape (Mahonia spp);
Pleurisy root (Asclepias tuberosa);
Spikenard* (Aralia racemosa, A. Californica);
White Sage* (Salvia apiana);
Wild Indigo (Baptisia tinctoria).

Many other medicinal and aromatic plant species are included in the United Nations Convention of the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), signed by 158 countries. This means that international trade in wild collected or artificially propagated material is subject to licence. As before, an asterisk indicates that the plant or tree is also valued for its essential oil.

Agarwood* (Aquiliara malaccensis and other Aquilaria species), also known as aloeswood, eaglewood and gaharu. Found in eastern India, though now on the verge of extinction there. Populations are widespread but patchy in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Laos, Burma, Vietnam, and Cambodia;
Aloe species (except Aloe vera), from Africa;
Amyris* (Amyris balsamifera), from the South Pacific and West Indies;
Guaiac* (Guaiacum officinalis and G.sanctum), from the West Indies;
Indian Yew (Taxus wallichiana), also found in Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Pakistan;
Himalayan Mayapple (Podophyllum hexandrum);
Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), from the Himalayas;
Orchid species (Orchidaceae), all species are protected throughout the world;
Prunus bark (Prunus africanas), from the wet montane forests of Africa;
Rosewood* Aniba roseodora, and all related species found in Brazil and other parts of South America;
Sandalwood* (Santalum album), from India, Indonesia and other parts of southeast Asia. In fact, wherever the tree grows it is at risk from over-harvesting;
Snakeroot (Rauvolfia serpentina), from India, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Spikenard* (Nardostachys grandiflora), from the Himalayas (Nepal, Bhutan).

Following is an additional list of aromatic plants and trees that have become endangered due mainly to the excessive demands of the essential oil industry.

Anise myrtle (Anetholia anisata), from Australia;
Artemisia spp., including tarragon (A. dracunculus), wormwood (A. absinthium), greater wormwood (A.gracalis), wild harvested in Europe and the USA;
Cabreuva (Myrocarpus frondosus). A rainforest tree from Brazil and other parts of South America. Severely threatened due to indiscriminate logging; essential oil is a by-product distilled from timber waste;
Cedar, true (Cedrus spp.), including Atlas cedar (C.atlantica) from North Africa and Himalyan cedar (C. deodorate).

Is Cultivation the Sole Answer?

Even though there has been an enormous increase in herb cultivation in recent years, not all medicinal plants are suited to high volume mono-culture, or the market is too small to make commercial harvesting financially viable. Therefore, only those species required in large quantities are cultivated to any significant extent. In any event, most experts believe there is not enough cultivatable land available to meet escalating world demand, unless yet more rainforest is felled to make way for plantations.

The only way forward is to find ways of supporting existing sustainable practices of wild harvesting, alongside sustainable methods of cultivation. Progress will be largely dependant on support from governments and industry.

Enter The Soil Association

The Soil Association (the largest independent inspection body for organic agriculture in the UK) has recently drawn up comprehensive standards for sustainable wild harvesting. Soil Association certification is regarded as more than just a mechanism for controlling indiscriminate gathering of wild plants. As well as ensuring maintenance of biodiversity (the broadly diverse forms into which all living things have evolved), it is also seen as being of fundamental importance for the preservation of cultural traditions, providing income for some of the world's poorest people.

All fine and dandy on paper, but from my own researches I cannot help but conclude that the SA has grown too big for its roots. True, the organization may well be doing an excellent job in monitoring organic standards for agriculture in Britain, but wildcrafting throughout the world is something else entirely. Due to reluctance of traders to reveal sources of wild harvested plants, it is impossible for any single agency to know the origin of every plant traded - and thus, extremely difficult to estimate sustainable yields. What we do know, is that plants are commonly gathered from remote regions of the globe, usually by local people, who sell the plant material on to agents. Therefore, whether the non profit-making Soil Association really has the funds to employ teams of botanical experts with local knowledge to effectively implement and monitor such a monumental programme, remains to be seen.

Added to the SA's inexperience of wildcrafting is their lack of knowledge of the complexities of the essential oil trade. Indeed, as we shall see, the certification of organic essential oils is another example of premature branching out. Incidentally, other EU approved organic inspection bodies such as Ecocert in France, Belgium and Germany can be criticized for making the same errors of judgement.

As a supporter of the organic movement for many years, it came as a shock to discover that the SA had awarded certified organic status to a source of geranium oil from recently cleared rainforest in Madagascar. On further enquiry, in transpired that they were also about to certify a 'sustainable' source of oil from endangered Indian sandalwood (Santalum album). Likewise, a source of Rosewood oil (Aniba spp). After bombarding the SA with informative and heartfelt pleas for sanity, thankfully they have agreed to reconsider certifying these oils. Moreover, they have also agreed to put to their committee members my proposal that nothing should be certified as 'organic' if grown on land deforested after 1994. However, it's too soon to celebrate because the outcome will depend on the vote of the leading membership - mostly traders with vested interests.

The SA's President Jonathan Dimbleby (BBC broadcaster, journalist and organic farmer), in personal a correspondence, has sympathized with my general concerns, but has admitted that the SA certification is 'bound to be an evolving process, very often in uncharted territory'. But surely anyone paying extra for a certified organic 'wildcrafted' herb or essential oil has every right to demand competence and expert knowledge from the certifying body?

Spotlight on the Aromatics Trade

Readers of my books will know that I've always advised against the use of rosewood oil because of the environmentally destructive method of its production. As for sandalwood, until recently, like many others, I had allowed myself to succumb to the rosy picture painted by traders - that for every tree felled, three more were planted. This same mantra is now being intoned for rosewood. Alas, the true picture is imbued with murky tones. Let's take a closer look at these two popular aromatics and consider the reasons why they have no place in holistic healing which encompasses a caring attitude to the planet that sustains us.

Sandalwood

The essential oil of Santalum album is found mainly in the heartwood and roots of mature trees. Thus, the tree must be felled in order to capture its precious bane. The sweet, soft-balsamic aroma is immensely popular in perfumery and as an ingredient in upmarket body care products. In aromatherapy, sandalwood is used mainly for its calming effect on the nerves and for skin treatments.

Few sandalwood trees are left in the Indonesian archipelago due to over-exploitation, while relatively recently discovered supplies in Papua New Guinea and the South Pacific are in danger of being squandered by local villagers, who fell them before maturity. Of the traditional areas in Southeast Asia where sandalwood is found, only India has made a significant effort to create sandalwood plantations, all of which are government owned. However, this parasitic tree is notoriously difficult to cultivate because the seed will usually only germinate once it has passed through a bird. The self-seeded saplings are protected from browsing animals to form semi-wild plantations.

Despite the Indian government's restrictions on the trade in sandalwood (which allows a limited amount of the essential oil to be traded on the world market), clandestine cutting and smuggling remains a serious threat to the species, causing law and order problems in areas bordering the state of Tamil Nadu. Smugglers have bribed hundreds of villagers to take part in illicit cutting and carrying, paying them twice as much as they can earn performing forest chores for the government. Alas, the gangs will often stop at nothing to secure their bounty - even murders have been committed in the name of sandalwood! The poached wood is taken north to the distilleries and incense factories of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Much of the illegally distilled oil finds its way to Indonesia from where it is sold to traders throughout the world.

Another major threat to sandalwood in southern India is seasonal forest fire, usually started by graziers and others employing unsustainable methods of land usage through ignorance of the need to maintain biodiversity. The fierce heat renders the trees susceptible to spike disease. A sandalwood tree infected with this mycoplasma organism usually dies within three years.

There is no doubt that it would be advantageous to reduce the world demand for sandalwood. The only way to ensure such an outcome is for us to stop buying it!

The Asian trade in sandalwood and other endangered species will continue unabated, but this is no reason for other countries to be complacent. Some have argued that there is nothing wrong in using sandalwood oil if it can be obtained from a legal, traceable and sustainable source. Indeed, moves are afoot to establish such guarantees.

However, the real issue is that certification will give the product an ethical image and increase its desirability to the eco-minded - the very people who would choose not to buy the product if presented with the whole picture! Awarding organic status to a consignment of oil will do nothing to curb the illicit trade in sandalwood, which is playing a major role in the tree's demise.

Wherever the tree is found growing, there will always be someone lurking in the shadows awaiting the opportunity to hack it down.

What About Australian Sandalwood?

As an alternative to precarious Asian sources, there is growing interest in Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). The Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) in western Australia is overseeing the supply and sustainability of sandalwood stands for extraction. A huge amount of money has been poured into the project, and so producers are doing their utmost to sell the sandalwood extract to aromatherapists. Incidentally, the term 'pure essential oil' (as claimed by the producers) is a misnomer because the highly toxic petrochemical solvent hexane is involved in the extraction process. Authentic essential oils used in holistic aromatherapy are extracted by steam distillation or, in the case of citrus fruit, by cold expression.

Although plantations are being established in the higher rainfall regions of western Australia, the newly planted trees will take about 50 years before the oil content (found mainly in the roots and heartwood) becomes abundant enough to make harvesting commercially economic. In the meantime, trees will continue to be uprooted from wild stands in the arid interior. In such harsh conditions, it can take 100 years for a tree to grow sufficiently large enough to meet harvesting criteria - quite a different picture from that painted by producers claiming that trees as young as 15 years can be harvested for oil.

Producers are also estimating that even without a replanting programme, there are enough trees to continue exploiting for 100 years. What is forgotten is that the demand for the product is likely to escalate as Asian sources continue to diminish and pressure mounts to expand or maintain the harvest, even if it is not sustainable. Indeed, as Ian Kealley a conservationist from CALM points out: "It will take a strong government and industry to resist the financial incentives". Furthermore, no one can be certain that the new plantations will flourish or expand sufficiently to replace the harvest from natural stands; and remember trees are not being replanted in these arid regions.

Aside from concerns about the long-term ecological impact, another alarming fact was revealed during the course of my investigations. Mt Romance, the main producers of Australian sandalwood 'oil', were directly involved in the commissioning of acute dermal and oral toxicity tests carried out on animals by the Danish laboratory Scantox in the year 2000 (currently unpublished research). Laboratory rodents have been tortured and destroyed in the name of Australian sandalwood, and yet the aromatic is an ingredient in certain 'cruelty free' cosmetics sold in the USA and Australia!

This unsavoury fact has been reported to several Australian animal rights organizations, which are now re-assessing the membership of certain cosmetic companies and essential oil suppliers currently listed by these organizations as 'cruelty free'. Eco ethics and animal rights are not separate issues; rather they are interrelated aspects of deep ecological awareness.

Rosewood

Rosewood trees (Aniba spp) are severely threatened with few mature trees left standing. The species A. roseaodora from the Brazilian Amazon Basin is on the verge of extinction resulting from over-exploitation by the perfume industry. The essential oil is found in greater abundance in the roots and heartwood of mature trees, which necessitates felling. It is estimated that 3000 rosewood trees (of several species) are still felled annually for the extraction of essential oil.

Contrary to one popular myth, rosewood plantations have not been around since the 1930s! All evidence shows that the tree has always been cut down from the wild, hence its severe decline. Research carried out by the Global Trees Campaign confirms that there have been attempts in recent years to establish rosewood plantations, but they have not been greatly successful. However, the current AVIVE replanting project in the Silves area of Brazil is looking more promising because the tree seedlings are being nurtured in their favoured wild forest habitat. Fortunately for these plants, it is not their destiny to be ripped from the Earth for commercial gain. Essential oil can be extracted by distillation of clippings of leaves and branches (even of fairly young trees) to provide a non-destructive and truly sustainable source of oil.

Indeed, from the distillation project supervised by WWF-Brazil, AVIVE will soon be providing an assured source of sustainable rosewood leaf/branch oil. To ensure that local workers are not exploited, the price received for the essential oil will be higher than the usual market price in accordance with guidelines set by the international Fair Trade scheme. Due to the scarcity of rosewood trees in the region, however, the amount of oil produced will be limited and available from only a handful of essential oil suppliers.

Unfortunately, at this time the aromatherapy profession is less enthused about rosewood leaf oil because its aroma and therapeutic properties are regarded as inferior. In aromatherapy, rosewood oil is used mainly in external applications (e.g. massage) to alleviate nervous tension and anxiety through its sweet, woody-rose fragrance. Therefore, it's absurd to believe that rosewood leaf/branch oil, whose aroma is only marginally different (i.e. with an additional citrus-like top note) from that obtained from heartwood, could be noticeably less effective for addressing emotional disharmony. Any essential oil whose aroma is pleasing to the recipient has the potential to enhance mood and reduce stress when applied therapeutically.

A word of caution: once word spreads about a sustainable source of rosewood leaf/branch oil, chances are the aromatherapy market will become flooded with 'ethically harvested' rosewood oil. (Indeed, similar has occurred with sandalwood, with some suppliers seriously claiming to sell oil produced only from trees blown down in storms!) Therefore it's advisable to boycott rosewood oil, as many enlightened therapists and traders have been doing so for over a decade. That is, unless indisputable documented evidence of its provenance and sustainability can be acquired from the supplier - thus making it easier to take legal action against a trader making fraudulent claims.

The Way Forward

It is incumbent upon us all to educate ourselves about the products we use in our daily lives. To be ever vigilant and never afraid to speak out against that which we perceive to be environmentally or socially misguided. Never underestimate the power of the 'Green coin'. By choosing what to buy and what not to buy, together we can change the ethics of business and industry. Let's do it!

Power of the Green Coin

Here are some of the ways you can help prevent the extinction of medicinal plants and at the same time contribute to raising general ecological awareness within your own sphere of contacts.

• Any medicinal plant that you are able to cultivate yourself is one less plant taken from the wild;
• Any cultivated medicinal plant grown in your own country from a certified organic source is another one less plant taken from the wild. As well as contributing to your own well-being, the choice made supports the welfare of the organic grower and the integrity of the local environment;
• Avoid any plant or essential oil that you know is from an endangered wild source;
• Avoid use of over-packaged, over-processed and over-priced standardized herbs whenever possible. If produced by one of the multinational pharmaceutical companies, its development will almost certainly have involved animal testing. Become intimate with the multifaceted effects of real herbs grown with integrity and respect for the environment and all life forms;
• Ask awkward questions of suppliers. Encourage them to investigate the provenance of every herb (or related product) they sell. Should you discover that a company is lying about its products or actions, never buy anything of theirs again;
• Join Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth or some other conservation or environmental organization of your choice. These agencies will work on your behalf to lobby governments, multinational industries and authorities around the world. They will also advise on the many ways in which you can make a positive difference in your own locality.

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